Sustainable forest use requires a global and cross-sectoral perspective. UK forests and woodlands cover some 2.4 million hectares (global forest cover is approximately five billion hectares) and only 13 per cent of UK demand for wood products is produced domestically. Planners of sustainable forest use must consider the full life cycle of wood. This cycle has hitherto principally been approached from a production perspective when it is clear that forestry must be set within the context of the global sustainable consumption of wood products. In this regard, the UK is one of world's largest per capita consumers. Friends of the Earth's own research has recently concluded that current levels of wood consumption in the developed world are far from sustainable. Thus an analysis of sustainable forestry should consider the UK's impact - as a consumer - on the forests of, for example, Canada, Finland, Sweden, Brazil and Indonesia.
The sustainable use of forests also involves a careful balance between
potentially 'competing' cross-sectoral interests (economic, social,
environmental, cultural) which can be reconciled within multi-purpose
forests. For example, the forests of Forstamt Erlangen in Germany have
been established in respect of their multi-purpose functions; for water
economy (21%), for climate (64%), for the protection of roads (2%),
for soil conservation (2%), for recreation (63%), for landscape and
biotopes (21%) and for timber production (21%).
Friends of the Earth believes that implicit in the definition of multi-purpose
forests is the use, primarily, of native species (and in roughly similar
proportions to natural woodlands) with the full and public participation
of local peoples and communities. In some areas, recognition must be
given to indigenous peoples' rights (including issues surrounding tenure,
cultural diversity and heritage). The balance of cross-sectoral interests
will vary from site to site, region to region. In addition, the forest
estate must be conceived within a sustainable land use strategy.
The Government Panel on Sustainable Development has requested views on five points. These are considered in turn below. The issues are intricately related however and no one aspect should be viewed in isolation. This submission attempts, where possible, to address each of the five points relevant to tropical, boreal and temperate (including UK) forests. However, the paper submitted by the Forestry Commission does not place UK forestry into a global context and for this reason fails to address key issues of central relevance to sustainable development.
Tropics: The most recent, authoritative statement on forest loss in the tropics has been conducted by the UN's Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) which estimated that the current rate of deforestation is 154,000 square kilometres per annum. There is also growing scientific and government opinion that the timber industry is the main agent and cause of direct forest loss in tropical moist regions whilst fuelwood collection and overgrazing are the principal problems in some drier areas.
Temperate and boreal: Forest area in the main wood and wood product exporting countries has remained static or is expanding (with the possible exception of Russia). However, there has invariably been a reduction in the quality of forest - ie plantation monocultures at the expense of old-growth (which continues to be logged for timber and pulp). As the UK is a major importer of temperate/boreal and tropical wood (for both timber and paper), UK consumption is directly impacting on forest ecosystems in these regions.
UK: The Countryside Survey 1990 reported that between 1984 and 1990, broadleaf and coniferous woodland increased by one per cent and five per cent respectively. The survey also discovered a significant reduction in woodland biodiversity (see below). Much of the UK's broadleaf woodland has fallen into neglect. A revival of sustainable hardwood production in the UK - both in terms of the quantity and quality of timber produced - could replace non-sustainable sources from the tropics (such as mahogany and greenheart) as well as promote new employment opportunities and nature conservation benefits.
Tax and multi-purpose forestry: It is impossible to examine taxation arrangements for forestry without consideration of the woodland grant system in the UK because both have offered (sometimes substantial) subsidies to the industry. The Government is committed (but with no specific timescale or targets) to the sustainable management and conservation of the country's existing woodland cover and encouraging the expansion of multi-purpose forests. In this context, Friends of the Earth believes that the tax system should discriminate in favour of multi-purpose forests as opposed to purely commercial forests. The former should attract more tax relief/grants in proportion to the environmental, social, cultural and economic benefits.
Tax and consumption. In order to reduce wood consumption to levels that do not exceed the ecological limits of forests globally, Friends of the Earth supports the use of a regulatory framework (ie, recycling targets) complemented, where effective, by economic instruments. To this end, the Government should assess the potential for a virgin fibre tax on all wood (also termed primary industrial wood products). A tax would have the following advantages and objectives: 1) reduce the use of primary products and stimulate the demand for secondary items made from waste residues (including non-wood fibres); 2) permit the redistribution of financial resources back to sustainable projects in the South; 3) more fully reflect the environmental and social costs of extraction and production; 4) initiate local 'environmental' schemes in the UK (ie, recycling, the sustainable production of UK wood sources); and 5) promote greater value-added in the country of production.
For example, Friends of the Earth advocates that a tax could be applied at the point of production or port of entry. The tax might be tiered; a lower band could cover wood from well managed, multi-purpose forests (ie, certified by accredited, independent organizations). Such sources could have an advantage over higher tax levies which could include all non-certified, unsustainable virgin wood fibres. Exemptions would have to be carefully assessed (some products contain both primary and secondary sources). A labelling scheme would need to be implemented. Similar levies on other primary products would also have to be assessed to restrict substitution (ie, plastics). The need for a tiered tax should be seen as transitionary. In the long- term, all forest products would originate from sustainable sources.
The 'balance' has implications for the management of forests for multiple benefits - for example, for landscaping, biodiversity, water quality, soils and recreation. The issue of 'balance' therefore is also given further consideration in the relevant sections.
UK (and temperate and boreal regions): As the UK Government confirms: “A mix of species and age of trees provides good habitat diversity, especially when more natural forest conditions are simulated and native species are included”. However, the situation in the UK - and in many other temperate and boreal countries - since the turn of the century has been moving towards a smaller mix of non-native species, a more uniform, younger age structure which have been deliberately planted (ie, unnatural). Yet there is wide agreement that semi-natural stands composed of native species are more important for nature conservation than plantations of exotic species.
The natural climax vegetation in much of the UK is comprised of oak woodlands (284 insect species are associated with this tree species), limes (31 insects) and elms (82) and more locally pines (91), hazel (73), ash (41), birch (229) and beeches (64). Today's composition is remarkably different with a corresponding local decline in insect diversity; 28% of the forest area is comprised of non- native sitka spruce (37 insects), 13% Scots pine (91), 9% oaks (284), 8% non-native larches (17), 7% non-native lodgepole pine, 6% non-native Norway spruce and the balance ash, beech, birches, other pines and Douglas firs. Because much of the UK's biodiversity has co-evolved through association with native species, the UK's native trees are host to a much larger number of species than non- native trees.
Plantations comprised, for example, of non-native coniferous species do not have the same characteristics as native woods. In the UK spring, bluebells, primroses and anemones, make use of increased light on the forest floor before deciduous tree species come back into leaf. Many native birds and mammals characteristically occur in native broadleaf woods; the lack of ground flora in conifer plantations deprives them of cover and food sources. After clear felling, the ground cover is dominated by species of disturbed ground - species recovery is low.
The priority should be to use native species of local provenance.
Local provenance stock is best able to provide the maximum benefits
for wildlife, adapt to local conditions and may provide a higher yield
of timber. Non-native trees should only be used where there are other
definite and tangible increased benefits for multi-purpose forests -
for example, wildlife or for reasons of over-riding public interest
(ie, flood control).
It is widely accepted that the biological characteristics of natural and semi-natural forests can never be replaced by monoculture or species-poor plantations. However, the Government's commitment to an increase in the UK forest estate will involve new, deliberate planting. This should be implemented and managed so that, in time, the forest will mimic, as closely as possible, the ecological complexity of semi-natural forests (in terms of both composition and structure) and where future regrowth is from natural regeneration. The age structure of the forest - particularly
those rich in dead wood - is significant in that it provides important habitats for fungi, mosses, lichens and insects as well as valuable nesting and roosting sites for birds and bats. In Sweden, the more uniform, younger age structure of plantations (compared to old-growth forests) is threatening many species of plant, fungi and lichens (see below).
The priority in temperate and boreal regions - including the UK - must be to conserve remnants of semi-natural (particularly ancient) woodlands. However, this is not happening. Between 1991 and 1994, there were a significant number of instances in England and Wales of damage to ancient woodland SSSIs (for example, in 1993-94, long- term damage was caused to the Titsal Wood SSSI in Suffolk). Furthermore, since 1945 approximately 45 per cent of the UK's ancient and semi-natural woodland has been lost.
Tropical regions: Primary forest still exists over significant areas of the tropics. However, secondary forests are often so severely damaged - for example by logging - that their ecological and environmental functions are seriously impaired. Plantations of even native trees have proved very difficult to establish (for example of mahogany, Swietenia macrophylla in Brazil). Exotic species in plantations have proved more successful - teak in Indonesia and eucalyptus in a number of countries (eg, Brazil, Congo and Indonesia,). Conflict has often arisen from land tenure disputes, the lack of local social and economic benefits and because of environmental impacts.
Forest ecosystems, particularly natural forests, contribute significantly to biodiversity. Tropical forests probably hold about 50 per cent of all species. The Canadian boreal forests hold over 27,000 species. Ancient woodland is one of the richest habitats in Britain, especially where the semi-natural mixture of native trees and scrubs remain. Plantation forests are consistently less diverse than natural or semi-natural forest in the same area both between species and within species. Their net impact on biodiversity will depend on the location of planting. Replacement, or fragmentation of natural old-growth forest will reduce biodiversity. On the other hand, afforestation of improved grassland or arable land may be of some benefit to biodiversity.
The most severe impacts on global biodiversity loss are from deforestation. New estimates predict that approximately 75 species are becoming extinct every day, mostly due to tropical deforestation. Clearance of ancient and old-growth forests or replacement by plantations also leads to losses of biodiversity in temperate and boreal regions. In Finland, it has been noted that the spread of plantations has led to the decline of hundreds of plant and animal species. Similarly for Sweden; 40 species of vertebrates which feed or breed in forests are now seriously endangered and of fungi, lichens and flowering plants about 50 species are on the verge of extinction. A further 220 are in some danger. The single largest contribution that could be made to conserving and enhancing biodiversity is to halt, and ultimately reverse, the loss of natural and semi-natural forest ecosystems world-wide. The UK has a vital role to play in this process being one of the largest per-capita consumers of wood products in the world.
In the UK, the Countryside Survey 1990 reported for years between 1978 and 1990: “Woodlands in all [British] landscapes except arable showed a significant loss of species. However, plants more characteristic of disturbed and grassy habitats within woodlands increased, suggesting that woods became more open and grassy”.
Variability within populations - genetic diversity - may also be important to many biotic interactions in forests. Through deforestation, the richest reservoirs of such diversity are being eliminated.
Recreational use of forests in the developed world has grown considerably during the 20th Century. Traditional uses - such as hunting - have been largely superseded by other activities such as walking, natural history and other outdoor activities. In the UK, the Forestry Commission - through its open access policy - estimates that there are some 50 million visits made per annum to its forests alone (one visit for every person in the country). However, currently, there is very little incentive for private landowners - who own the vast majority of woodland in the UK - to maintain forests for recreational purposes and access to these forests is limited and has declined.
Multi-purpose forests - as opposed to even-aged species- poor plantations - could potentially provide considerable recreational benefits (eg, increased biodiversity and woodlands that are more aesthetically pleasing). For example, by comparison, in Canada there were 63 million visits to forest parks in 1992 (2.5 visits for every person in the country). There is no evidence that increased recreational activity causes significant disturbance to the forest ecosystem. Restrictions may be needed in especially sensitive areas however.
Forest management and water quality: Upland conifer (re)afforestation can lead to increased acidity of soil and, more significantly, of water. The acidity of streams, rivers and lakes is increased with negative impacts on aquatic fauna and flora.
There are two major contributing factors. Firstly, the process of podsolisation in which the soil under conifers becomes increasingly acidic as the result of the accumulation of humus. Secondly, coniferous trees intercept a higher proportion of moisture from the air than grassland or moorland. Acid deposition from the air is enhanced.
The soil and stream acidity caused by afforestation increases with age. In Galloway, a linear relationship was found between stream acidity and age of plantation (over the range 1-23 years age). The Nature Conservancy Council noted that acidity eventually peaks, and may even decline as the forest ages further. However, in the UK the short rotation means that the decline phase is rarely, if ever, reached.
Acidification is related to increased mobilisation of metal ions, notably aluminium. In Wales, a study of 100 catchments found a close correlation between upland conifer plantation afforestation and aluminium levels in run-off. Acidification and increased aluminium levels have severe impacts on a range of freshwater species. Studies have revealed impacts on invertebrates, salmonoid fish, frogs and at least one bird species: the dipper. The Llyn Brianne acid waters project reported that: “The streamwater in afforested catchments invariably tended to contain more mobilised aluminium with detrimental consequences to fish, freshwater biota and riverine bird inhabitants in the catchments”. On the Tywi catchment, 46-63 invertebrate taxa were represented in streams in unafforested areas. In afforested areas just 23-27 taxa were represented. The scarcity of salmonoids in afforested streams is directly attributable to the combination of elevated aluminium levels and acidity.
The ability of forest management practices to tackle acidification is limited. However, practises developed in Germany offer some potential. A more diverse forest structure increases the ability of the forest to filter pollutants, but also increases its ability to buffer and adapt. Combining a more diverse structure with an increased mix of species leads to increased biological activity in and on the soil which reduces the likelihood of acid flushes.
Afforestation and forest management practices also result in chemical releases (fertilizers and pesticides) to water, particularly in upland areas. The process of afforestation increases the flow of nutrients into water with phosphate levels remaining higher than before afforestation into the long term. The use of fertilizers has been widespread in Finland and is expected to double over the 1990s. In the UK, relatively limited fertilizer is used at present (phosphate is the most common). Elevated concentrations of phosphate in run-off have been identified, and associated with eutrophication of water bodies. It was discovered in Irish reservoirs that the highest levels of phosphate were found in those fed by afforested upland catchments. The Forth River Purification Board (FRPB) considers that nutrient-poor waters are the “most sensitive to changes in unit load of nutrient, and to the associated degradation of quality”. Fertilisation in upland catchments can be particularly damaging to aquatic systems. It has been reported that the Tay River Purification Board will oppose further forestry plantings in the catchment of Loch Earn in Scotland because of concern at eutrophication. According to the FRPB, “forestry fertilisation is often quoted as contributing nutrients”.
Pesticide use in UK forestry is relatively low. In North America and Scandinavia pesticide use has increased to control pest species. Monocultures are closely associated with large-scale pest infestation. Exotic species such as sitka spruce may not have indigenous predators at all, while the natural balance between predator and pest is disrupted by monoculture. However, species such as the pine beauty moth, spruce beetle and spruce aphid have become or are becoming a widespread problem in UK conifer plantations. An increase in the proportion of sitka spruce in the European tree health survey showing over 25 per cent defoliation from 20.6 per cent in 1987 to 53.7 per cent in 1990 was attributed to increased attacks by the green spruce aphid largely in the UK and Ireland. High levels of pesticide use in the former USSR has already polluted waterways.
In conclusion, acidification is a serious threat to upland waters in the UK as well as elsewhere in the temperate and boreal zones. The impacts of further intensive forestry - and increased chemical application - could pose serious environmental threats. In general, the problems of acidification and chemical releases require limitations on upland planting as well as control of acid pollutants, fertilizers and pesticides. Support for multi-purpose forestry could mitigate these problems. Lowland UK forestry - particularly of broadleaf native species - is generally recognized as having a benign or beneficial effect on water quality.
Forest management and flood control: Forests moderate and reduce total run-off from catchments, as a result of high interception and storage capacity. However, patterns of run-off vary over time and in relation to forest type. Drainage in new plantations tends to increase run-off, increasing storm peaks and triggering erosion (see below). Once the forest canopy has closed run-off reduction becomes more significant, to the extent that drought conditions may be prolonged, with increased likelihood of stream drying and consequent severe impacts on aquatic fauna including salmonoid fish. In general, run-off response becomes less peaky. Where soils or subsoils are not acid then this could be associated with increased buffering of acid through-flow. In some cases, however, faster flood responses occur throughout the lifetime of the crop.
Severe flooding has resulted from deforestation in many tropical countries - such as Nepal, Thailand and the Philippines - particularly in upland areas. Logging (and other causes of forest loss) significantly increases the sediment load in catchment areas, modifying river behaviour and thereby adding to the risks of down stream riparian communities.
Forest management and long-term site productivity: Many factors will affect the productivity of forests. Perhaps the three most important are the forests' structure, the nutrient status of soils and erosion. Each aspect is relevant to all types of forest.
The physical impacts of forestry activity mainly occur in two phases. Preparation and planting involve drainage, ploughing or the building of logging roads which result in compaction and structural damage to soils. More significantly, the process exposes sediment to erosion. Secondly, clear felling and selective cutting also damage soils but selective cutting can also severely disturb the residual forest, particularly in the tropics. A further problem associated with logged tropical forests is the change of microclimate on the forest floor. In temperate and boreal regions, there is also the long-term process of structural degradation associated with podsolisation.
Soil disturbance can also lead to the release of nutrients - nitrate, phosphate and potassium - into water courses. Clear felling of upland plantation forest in northern England has increased losses of nitrogen tenfold. The clearance of old- growth forest leads to a significant loss of nutrients. Declines of productivity of up to 40 per cent have been found in the second rotation of Monterey pines (Pinus radiata) in Australia. Nutrients are also lost in the timber extracted. This is particularly true of the tropics.
It has been argued that forest growth does not deplete the nutrient base of the soil and in many cases leads to enrichment. However, this is not necessarily the net effect of plantations. Conifers in particular return nutrients slowly through litterfall and the return of a significant proportion of woody debris is required to maintain fertility.
Episodic erosion can be severe, and there is a prolonged increase in both suspended sediment and bed loads. A range of studies on sediment output rates after upland afforestation have shown first year increases of 234-1,600 per cent while concluding that a three- to four-fold increase over pre-afforestation rates is common in established plantation forests.
It is important to recognise that the longer-term erosion effects associated with conifer afforestation in the UK are largely the result of the replacement of semi-natural ground cover vegetation by forest with limited ground cover. The prolonged effects will be diminished where ground cover is established through the creation of forests with diverse structure. Where forests replace arable land use then erosion rates are likely to be reduced (as a result of the establishment of permanent vegetation and increased interception of rain). This can be a substantial benefit of lowland afforestation.
Forest management and greenhouse gases: The accumulation of certain gases in the atmosphere is projected to lead to climate change. Carbon dioxide is the primary contributor. Deforestation removes a store of organic carbon and releases carbon dioxide through the decay or combustion of the forest biomass. Natural and semi-natural forests generally contain more carbon than plantation forests and to combat climate change the conservation of the former should be prioritised over the expansion of the latter.
Deforestation in the tropics is a significant carbon source whilst temperate and boreal forests constitute a significant net store. The IPCC estimates that removal of tropical forests contributes around 20 per cent of anthropogenic carbon emissions: 1.6 .1 billion tonnes of carbon per year. Estimates for temperate and boreal forests suggest they are a net sink for 0.7 billion tonnes of carbon per year. Therefore, globally, the net effect of changes in the global forest resource is a contribution to increasing levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. It is theoretically possible to convert the global forest resource to a net sink by reducing deforestation, expanding afforestation and enhancing accumulation in existing forests. In global terms, halting deforestation is the priority, not only in terms of climate change but also biodiversity conservation.
Conversion of old-growth forest to plantation may enhance the rate of carbon accumulation, by increasing the growth rate, but may also decrease the carbon store. The total biomass in natural growth forest is substantially more than that in a plantation, even if the carbon in timber in the plantation is greater. Studies conducted in temperate regions have concluded that conversion of old-growth forests to younger forests is a net contributor to atmospheric carbon levels. Similarly for tropical forests where biomass yields and sinks are actually greater in natural forests compared to plantations even though plantations grow faster.
In the worst cases, new afforestation can also be a net carbon source. Particularly important are the existing carbon relations of soils. In organic soils initial carbon content can be high. Extreme levels are found in peatlands where a one metre depth of peat contains (on average) 550 tonnes of carbon per hectare, all of which will be eventually oxidised if the peat dries out. Thus afforestation on peat soils and blanket bog (largely upland areas) will not create an additional carbon sink. Drainage of peatbogs for afforestation is common in Scandinavia, where over 7 million hectares of deep peat have been drained and afforested: this forestry activity acts as a carbon source.
Silvicultural techniques can also enhance the sinks created by existing forests. For example, longer rotation periods and higher planting densities (so long as they are consistent with multi-purpose forests).
Higher consumption is also contributing to carbon sources, particularly in short-lived uses (such as paper) as the carbon accumulated will be re-emitted in decay relatively rapidly. Reducing consumption is therefore necessary through incentives for reducing, reusing and recycling of forest products.
1. UK forests should be managed to achieve a wide range of ecological, social and economic benefits and to minimise impacts on biodiversity and soils. Benefits will vary from site to site. Existing economic objectives for UK forests must be re-evaluated in order to manage and enhance the contribution of these ecosystems for biodiversity conservation and climate benefits.
2. Afforestation should be restricted to protect important open habitats and waters sensitive to acidification. Forest policy should aim to continue the movement of forestry 'down the hill'. Greater protection should be afforded to the UK's old-growth and ancient woodland. New planting should encourage the expansion of broadleaf, not coniferous, woodland.
3. Forest policy must be conceived within a sustainable land use policy and have a global perspective. Over-consumption is central to sustainable development. Issues beyond the forestry sector - but directly impacting on it either nationally or internationally (for example, air pollution) - must also be embraced.
KEY REFERENCES
AWRG (UK Acid Waters Review Group), 1989. Acidity in United Kingdom
Fresh Waters. London: HMSO.
Barnett, A., 1992. Deserts of Trees. Friends of the Earth,
London.
Blackie, J.R. and Newson, M.D., 1986. The effects of forestry on the
quantity and quality of run-off in upland Britain. In Solbe, J.F. de
L.G. (ed). Effects of Land Use on Fresh Waters. Chichester: Ellis
Horwood
Bruenig, E.F., 1986. Aspects of current forestry practice and silvicultural
trends in West Germany affecting fresh waters. In Solbe, J.F. de L.G.
(ed). Effects of Land Use on Fresh Waters. Chichester: Ellis
Horwood
Department of the Environment, 1993. Countryside Survey 1990.
Main Report. HMSO.
Edwards, R., Gee, A. and Stoner J., 1989 (eds). Acid Waters in
Wales. London: Kluwer Academic.
Environment Committee, 1993. Forestry and the Environment.
First Report, Volume II. House of Commons Environment Committee, Session
1992-93. Minutes of Evidence and Appendices. HMSO.
Food and Agriculture Organization, 1993. Summary of the Final Report
of the Forest Resources Assessment 1990 for the Tropical World.
Rome.
Forth River Purification Board, 1991. The Process of Eutrophication.
Evidence to the Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution for its
study on freshwater quality. Unpublished.
Gamling, L., 1988. Sweden's factory forests. New Scientist,
28th January.
Hornung, M., Stevens, P.A. and Reynolds, B., 1986. The effects of
forestry on soils, soil water and surface water chemistry. In Good,
J.E.G. (ed) Environmental Aspects of Plantation Forestry in Wales.
ITE Symposium 22
Immirzi, C.P. and Maltby, E., 1992. The Global Status of Peatlands
and their Role in Carbon Cycling. London: Friends of the Earth.
Isomaki, R., 1991. Paper, pollution and global warming: unsustainable
forestry in Finland, The Ecologist, 21:1.
Kirby, K., 1992. Woodland and Wildlife. Whittet Books Ltd,
London.
Maltby, E., 1986. Waterlogged Wealth. London: IIED/Earthscan.
Mather, A.S., 1992. Global Forest Resources. Belhaven Press,
London.
NCC, 1986. Nature Conservation and Afforestation in Britain.
Nature Conservancy Council, Peterborough.
NCC, 1989. Evidence submitted by the Nature Conservancy Council to
the Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution for its study on freshwater
quality. Unpublished. Peterborough: NCC.
Ormerod, S.J., Mawle, G.W. and Edwards, R.W., 1986. The influence
of forest on aquatic fauna. In Good, J.E.G. (ed). Environmental Aspects
of Plantation Forestry in Wales, ITE Symposium 22.
OTA (Office of Technology Assessment, Congress of the United States),
1991. Changing by Degrees: Steps to Reduce Greenhouse Gases.
Chapter 7: The Forestry Sector. Washington DC: OTA.
Peterken, G.F. and Allison H., 1989. Woods Trees and Hedges: A
Review of Changes in the British Countryside. Peterborough: NCC.
Rice, T., 1995 (ed). Out of the Woods: Reducing Wood Consumption
to Save the World's Forests. A Plan for Action in the UK. Friends
of the Earth, London.
Rice, T. and Counsell, S., 1993. Forests Foregone. The European
Community's Trade in Tropical Timbers and the Destruction of the Rainforests.
Friends of the Earth, London.
Sedjo, R.A., 1992. Temperate forest ecosystems in the global carbon
cycle. Ambio 21:4 pp.274-277.
United Kingdom Review Group on Acid Rain, 1990. Acid deposition
in the United Kingdom 1986-1988. Third Report. London: Department
of the Environment.
Water Bulletin, 1992. No 522, 21st August 1992.
FURTHER READING FROM FRIENDS OF THE EARTH ON FOREST ISSUES
Out of the Woods: Reducing Wood Consumption to Save the World's
Forests - A Plan for Action in the UK. (report) April 1995.
Out of the Woods; Reducing Wood Consumption to Save the World's
Forests. (briefing) April 1995
The Environmental Impacts of Paper Manufacture. October 1996
Paper, Wood & the World's Forests. 1996
The Good Wood Guide (third edition),
To order any of these publications please contact; Publications Despatch,
Friends of the Earth, 56-58 Alma Street, Luton LU1 2PH Tel: 01582 482297
Tim Rice
August 1995
Published by Friends of the Earth Ltd
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August 1995
Tim Rice
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